The Milky Way and Beyond by Britannica Educational Publishing Page A
Authors: Britannica Educational Publishing
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Sirius B is a prime example, having a radius one-thousandth that of the Sun, which is comparable to the size of Earth. Among other notable stars, Rigel A is a young supergiant in the constellation Orion, and Canopus is a bright beacon in the Southern Hemisphere often used for spacecraft navigation.
S TELLAR A CTIVITY AND M ASS L OSS
The Sunâs activity is apparently not unique. It has been found that stars of many types are active and have stellar winds analogous to the solar wind. The importance and ubiquity of strong stellar winds became apparent only through advances in spaceborne ultraviolet and X-ray astronomy, as well as in radio and infrared surface-based astronomy.
X-ray observations that were made during the early 1980s yielded some rather unexpected findings. They revealed that nearly all types of stars are surrounded by coronas having temperatures of one million kelvins (K) or more. Furthermore, all stars seemingly display active regions, including spots, flares, and prominences much like those of the Sun. Some stars exhibit starspots so large that an entire face of the star is relatively dark, while others display flare activity thousands of times more intense than that on the Sun.
The highly luminous hot, blue stars have by far the strongest stellar winds. Observations of their ultraviolet spectra with telescopes on sounding rockets and spacecraft have shown that their wind speeds often reach 3,000 km (roughly 2,000 miles) per second, while losing mass at rates up to a billion times that of the solar wind. The corresponding mass-loss rates approach and sometimes exceed one hundred-thousandth of a solar mass per year, which means that one entire solar mass (perhaps a tenth of the total mass of the star) is carried away into space in a relatively short span of 100,000 years. Accordingly, the most luminous stars are thought to lose substantial fractions of their mass during their lifetimes, which are calculated to be only a few million years.
Ultraviolet observations have proved that to produce such great winds the pressure of hot gases in a corona, which drives the solar wind, is not enough. Instead, the winds of the hot stars must be driven directly by the pressure of the energetic ultraviolet radiation emitted by these stars. Aside from the simple realization that copious quantities of ultraviolet radiation flow from such hot stars, the details of the process are not well understood. Whatever is going on, it is surely complex, for the ultraviolet spectra of the stars tend to vary with time, implying that the wind is not steady. In an effort to understand better the variations in the rate of flow, theorists are investigating possible kinds of instabilities that might be peculiar to luminous hot stars.
Observations made with radio and infrared telescopes, as well as with optical instruments, prove that luminous cool stars also have winds whose total mass-flow rates are comparable to those of the luminous hot stars, though their velocities are much lowerâabout 30 km (20 miles) per second. Because luminous red stars are inherently cool objects (having a surface temperature of about 3,000 K, or half that of the Sun), they emit very little detectable ultraviolet or X-ray radiation. Thus, the mechanism driving the winds must differ from that in luminous hot stars.
Winds from luminous cool stars, unlike those from hot stars, are rich in dust grains and molecules. Since nearly all stars more massive than the Sun eventually evolve into such cool stars, their winds, pouring into space from vast numbers of stars, provide a major source ofnew gas and dust in interstellar space, thereby furnishing a vital link in the cycle of star formation and galactic evolution. As in the case of the hot stars, the specific mechanism that drives the winds of the cool stars is not understood. At this time, investigators can only surmise that gas turbulence, magnetic fields, or both in the atmospheres of these stars are somehow
S TELLAR A CTIVITY AND M ASS L OSS
The Sunâs activity is apparently not unique. It has been found that stars of many types are active and have stellar winds analogous to the solar wind. The importance and ubiquity of strong stellar winds became apparent only through advances in spaceborne ultraviolet and X-ray astronomy, as well as in radio and infrared surface-based astronomy.
X-ray observations that were made during the early 1980s yielded some rather unexpected findings. They revealed that nearly all types of stars are surrounded by coronas having temperatures of one million kelvins (K) or more. Furthermore, all stars seemingly display active regions, including spots, flares, and prominences much like those of the Sun. Some stars exhibit starspots so large that an entire face of the star is relatively dark, while others display flare activity thousands of times more intense than that on the Sun.
The highly luminous hot, blue stars have by far the strongest stellar winds. Observations of their ultraviolet spectra with telescopes on sounding rockets and spacecraft have shown that their wind speeds often reach 3,000 km (roughly 2,000 miles) per second, while losing mass at rates up to a billion times that of the solar wind. The corresponding mass-loss rates approach and sometimes exceed one hundred-thousandth of a solar mass per year, which means that one entire solar mass (perhaps a tenth of the total mass of the star) is carried away into space in a relatively short span of 100,000 years. Accordingly, the most luminous stars are thought to lose substantial fractions of their mass during their lifetimes, which are calculated to be only a few million years.
Ultraviolet observations have proved that to produce such great winds the pressure of hot gases in a corona, which drives the solar wind, is not enough. Instead, the winds of the hot stars must be driven directly by the pressure of the energetic ultraviolet radiation emitted by these stars. Aside from the simple realization that copious quantities of ultraviolet radiation flow from such hot stars, the details of the process are not well understood. Whatever is going on, it is surely complex, for the ultraviolet spectra of the stars tend to vary with time, implying that the wind is not steady. In an effort to understand better the variations in the rate of flow, theorists are investigating possible kinds of instabilities that might be peculiar to luminous hot stars.
Observations made with radio and infrared telescopes, as well as with optical instruments, prove that luminous cool stars also have winds whose total mass-flow rates are comparable to those of the luminous hot stars, though their velocities are much lowerâabout 30 km (20 miles) per second. Because luminous red stars are inherently cool objects (having a surface temperature of about 3,000 K, or half that of the Sun), they emit very little detectable ultraviolet or X-ray radiation. Thus, the mechanism driving the winds must differ from that in luminous hot stars.
Winds from luminous cool stars, unlike those from hot stars, are rich in dust grains and molecules. Since nearly all stars more massive than the Sun eventually evolve into such cool stars, their winds, pouring into space from vast numbers of stars, provide a major source ofnew gas and dust in interstellar space, thereby furnishing a vital link in the cycle of star formation and galactic evolution. As in the case of the hot stars, the specific mechanism that drives the winds of the cool stars is not understood. At this time, investigators can only surmise that gas turbulence, magnetic fields, or both in the atmospheres of these stars are somehow
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