menus has a history which dates from the Middle Ages. The Anglo-Saxons would have eaten
sheep
,
pig
,
cow
and
calf
; but these words were evidently too crude to satisfy the fastidious manners of the newly arrived French court.
During the early Middle English period, a new set of words became established as the gourmet’s norm. People now ate
mutton
,
pork, beef
and
veal
. The recipe books of the period are full of French words. Here is the beginning of one of them – a 14th-century recipe for fig tartlets. The French words are underlined:
Tourteletes in fryture . Take figus & grynde hem
smal; do þerin saffron & powdur fort . Close hem in foyles of dowe, & frye hem in oyle .
Tartlets in fritter (batter). Take figs and grind them small; put therein saffron and strong powder (spice). Wrap them in foils (layers) of dough and fry them in oil.
You wouldn’t get far in the kitchen without French. The only cookery words that are Old English are
grind
and
dough
.
Although
pork
started out within the language of elegant cuisine, its subsequent history was less salubrious. Already in the Middle English period the adjective
porkish
was being used as a rude description of fat (‘piglike’) people. An obese or greedy person might be called a
porkling
.
Porky
came later, in the 18th century, for anything or anyone resembling a pig, and it became the normal insult for someone noticeably overweight. Warner Bros reclaimed the phrase somewhat when the stuttering cartoon character Porky Pig was introduced in the
Looney Tunes
series in the 1930s. But the general trend was in the opposite direction.
Pork
continued to pick up negative associations.
In the 20th century, the process continued when Cockney rhyming slang made
pork pie
a substitute for
lie
.
Porky pie
was used in the same way, and by the 1980s this had been shortened to
porky
. ‘Don’t tell such porkies,’ someone might say. It is a euphemism, humorously softening the force of
lie
.
But the ultimate fall from grace came when
pork
began to be used for the penis in American slang of the 1930s. How did that change come about? The origin seems to lie in the 17th century. The implements used by pig slaughtermen were colloquially called
pigstickers
, and this term soon became slang for any kind of sharp implement, especially when used as a weapon. The association with pigs led to
porker
becoming a slang term for a sword. And the obvious parallels in shape and language (such as
sword thrusts
) led to both
pork
and
pork sword
being used for the male appendage. The French courtiers would have been horrified.
Chattels
a legal word (13th century)
It must have been quite hard, being a lawyer in the Middle Ages in England. Originally, all your law books would have been in Latin. Then, in the 13th century, they start being written in French. Then along comes English. Lawyers had a problem. When they wanted to talk about a legal issue, which words should they use? Should they describe the issue using an English word or opt for the equivalent word in French or Latin? And would the words be equivalent anyway? There might be subtle differences of meaning between an English word and a French one which could make all the difference in a court of law.
How to choose? If someone decided to leave all his property and possessions to a relative, should thelegal document talk about his
goods
, using the Old English word, or his
chattels
, using the Old French word? The lawyers thought up an ingenious solution. They would use both. If the document said
goods and chattels
, they would be covered against all eventualities. So that’s what they did. And the phrase
goods and chattels
is still used in legal English.
A large number of legal doublets were created in this way, and some of them became so widely known that they entered everyday English. Every time we say
fit and proper
or
wrack and ruin
we are recalling a legal mix of English and French.
Peace and quiet
combines French and Latin.
Will
sheep
,
pig
,
cow
and
calf
; but these words were evidently too crude to satisfy the fastidious manners of the newly arrived French court.
During the early Middle English period, a new set of words became established as the gourmet’s norm. People now ate
mutton
,
pork, beef
and
veal
. The recipe books of the period are full of French words. Here is the beginning of one of them – a 14th-century recipe for fig tartlets. The French words are underlined:
Tourteletes in fryture . Take figus & grynde hem
smal; do þerin saffron & powdur fort . Close hem in foyles of dowe, & frye hem in oyle .
Tartlets in fritter (batter). Take figs and grind them small; put therein saffron and strong powder (spice). Wrap them in foils (layers) of dough and fry them in oil.
You wouldn’t get far in the kitchen without French. The only cookery words that are Old English are
grind
and
dough
.
Although
pork
started out within the language of elegant cuisine, its subsequent history was less salubrious. Already in the Middle English period the adjective
porkish
was being used as a rude description of fat (‘piglike’) people. An obese or greedy person might be called a
porkling
.
Porky
came later, in the 18th century, for anything or anyone resembling a pig, and it became the normal insult for someone noticeably overweight. Warner Bros reclaimed the phrase somewhat when the stuttering cartoon character Porky Pig was introduced in the
Looney Tunes
series in the 1930s. But the general trend was in the opposite direction.
Pork
continued to pick up negative associations.
In the 20th century, the process continued when Cockney rhyming slang made
pork pie
a substitute for
lie
.
Porky pie
was used in the same way, and by the 1980s this had been shortened to
porky
. ‘Don’t tell such porkies,’ someone might say. It is a euphemism, humorously softening the force of
lie
.
But the ultimate fall from grace came when
pork
began to be used for the penis in American slang of the 1930s. How did that change come about? The origin seems to lie in the 17th century. The implements used by pig slaughtermen were colloquially called
pigstickers
, and this term soon became slang for any kind of sharp implement, especially when used as a weapon. The association with pigs led to
porker
becoming a slang term for a sword. And the obvious parallels in shape and language (such as
sword thrusts
) led to both
pork
and
pork sword
being used for the male appendage. The French courtiers would have been horrified.
Chattels
a legal word (13th century)
It must have been quite hard, being a lawyer in the Middle Ages in England. Originally, all your law books would have been in Latin. Then, in the 13th century, they start being written in French. Then along comes English. Lawyers had a problem. When they wanted to talk about a legal issue, which words should they use? Should they describe the issue using an English word or opt for the equivalent word in French or Latin? And would the words be equivalent anyway? There might be subtle differences of meaning between an English word and a French one which could make all the difference in a court of law.
How to choose? If someone decided to leave all his property and possessions to a relative, should thelegal document talk about his
goods
, using the Old English word, or his
chattels
, using the Old French word? The lawyers thought up an ingenious solution. They would use both. If the document said
goods and chattels
, they would be covered against all eventualities. So that’s what they did. And the phrase
goods and chattels
is still used in legal English.
A large number of legal doublets were created in this way, and some of them became so widely known that they entered everyday English. Every time we say
fit and proper
or
wrack and ruin
we are recalling a legal mix of English and French.
Peace and quiet
combines French and Latin.
Will
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