invade and occupy the
remaining Ottoman provinces in Europe. After a series of negotiations, Serbia
and Bulgaria formed an alliance in March 1912. Shortly after, in May, Bulgaria
signed a similar agreement with Greece. Finally, in October, Serbia and
Montenegro formed an alliance. Shortly after, the Balkan states declared war on
the Ottoman Empire. The Bulgarians soon defeated the Ottomans at the battles of
Kirklareli/Kirkkilise (22–24 October) and Lüleburgaz (22 October–2 November),
followed by a Serbian victory at the battle of Kumanovo (23–24 October). Meanwhile,
the Greeks captured Salonika on 8 November.
Without a coordinated plan and in the absence of a unified
command, the Ottomans were forced either to retreat or to take defensive
positions. The major urban centers of the empire in Europe were surrounded by
the invading Balkan armies. In December, the Ottoman government sued for peace.
As the discussions dragged on in London, Bulgaria demanded the city of Edirne.
This was too much for a group of young officers in Istanbul, who staged a
military coup on 23 January 1913, killing the minister of war and forcing the
government to resign. When the news of the coup in Istanbul reached London, the
Balkan states resumed their military campaigns. Despite a promise to take the
offensive, the new government in Istanbul failed to repulse the Bulgarian
forces, who captured Edirne on 28 March, and the Serbs, who seized Shkodër on
22 April. On 30 May, the Ottoman government was forced to sign the Treaty of
London, which resulted in the loss of much of its territory in Europe,
including the city of Edirne.
Fortunately for the Ottomans, intense rivalries and
jealousies among the Balkan states erupted shortly after the signing of the
Treaty of London. Romania, which had not participated in the war, demanded
territory from Bulgaria. The Greeks and Serbs also expressed dissatisfaction
with the division of territory in Macedonia. As the negotiations for the
creation of an anti-Bulgarian alliance began, Bulgaria attacked Serbia,
igniting a new Balkan war between the victors of the first. The Ottomans used
the opportunity to recapture Edirne and forced Bulgaria to sign the Treaty of
Istanbul in September 1913.
DEFEAT IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND THE FALL
OF THE EMPIRE
The military coup of January 1913 brought the Ottoman
government under the control of the CUP. As the CUP began to consolidate its
power over the organs of the state, a triumvirate of army officers comprised of
Cemal Paşa, Enver Paşa, and Talat Paşa began to rule the empire
with the support of an inner circle that represented the various factions
within the CUP. With the clouds of war gathering over Europe, the beleaguered
Ottoman government appraised its various options, none of which looked very
promising given the predatory nature of the European powers. The decision to
enter the war on the side of Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire brought
the Ottoman state into open military confrontation with France, Russia, and
Great Britain. In the Constantinople Agreement of 1915, these three Entente powers
agreed to the complete partition of the Ottoman Empire after the end of the
war.
The Allied expectation that the empire they had dubbed the “sick
man of Europe” would be destroyed with one single military blow proved to be
wishful thinking. The British attempt to force the Ottoman Empire out of the
war called for a massive landing of Allied troops at the foothills of Gallipoli
on the European shores of the Dardanelles. After establishing a beachhead in
April 1915, the troops planned to climb the hills and destroy the Ottoman
forces that defended the heights. To the dismay of the British, the Ottomans,
supported by German officers, fought back heroically, inflicting an impressive
defeat on the enemy, who retreated with heavy casualties in January 1916.
Another advancing British force in southern Iraq also met unexpected resistance
and suffered heavy
remaining Ottoman provinces in Europe. After a series of negotiations, Serbia
and Bulgaria formed an alliance in March 1912. Shortly after, in May, Bulgaria
signed a similar agreement with Greece. Finally, in October, Serbia and
Montenegro formed an alliance. Shortly after, the Balkan states declared war on
the Ottoman Empire. The Bulgarians soon defeated the Ottomans at the battles of
Kirklareli/Kirkkilise (22–24 October) and Lüleburgaz (22 October–2 November),
followed by a Serbian victory at the battle of Kumanovo (23–24 October). Meanwhile,
the Greeks captured Salonika on 8 November.
Without a coordinated plan and in the absence of a unified
command, the Ottomans were forced either to retreat or to take defensive
positions. The major urban centers of the empire in Europe were surrounded by
the invading Balkan armies. In December, the Ottoman government sued for peace.
As the discussions dragged on in London, Bulgaria demanded the city of Edirne.
This was too much for a group of young officers in Istanbul, who staged a
military coup on 23 January 1913, killing the minister of war and forcing the
government to resign. When the news of the coup in Istanbul reached London, the
Balkan states resumed their military campaigns. Despite a promise to take the
offensive, the new government in Istanbul failed to repulse the Bulgarian
forces, who captured Edirne on 28 March, and the Serbs, who seized Shkodër on
22 April. On 30 May, the Ottoman government was forced to sign the Treaty of
London, which resulted in the loss of much of its territory in Europe,
including the city of Edirne.
Fortunately for the Ottomans, intense rivalries and
jealousies among the Balkan states erupted shortly after the signing of the
Treaty of London. Romania, which had not participated in the war, demanded
territory from Bulgaria. The Greeks and Serbs also expressed dissatisfaction
with the division of territory in Macedonia. As the negotiations for the
creation of an anti-Bulgarian alliance began, Bulgaria attacked Serbia,
igniting a new Balkan war between the victors of the first. The Ottomans used
the opportunity to recapture Edirne and forced Bulgaria to sign the Treaty of
Istanbul in September 1913.
DEFEAT IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND THE FALL
OF THE EMPIRE
The military coup of January 1913 brought the Ottoman
government under the control of the CUP. As the CUP began to consolidate its
power over the organs of the state, a triumvirate of army officers comprised of
Cemal Paşa, Enver Paşa, and Talat Paşa began to rule the empire
with the support of an inner circle that represented the various factions
within the CUP. With the clouds of war gathering over Europe, the beleaguered
Ottoman government appraised its various options, none of which looked very
promising given the predatory nature of the European powers. The decision to
enter the war on the side of Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire brought
the Ottoman state into open military confrontation with France, Russia, and
Great Britain. In the Constantinople Agreement of 1915, these three Entente powers
agreed to the complete partition of the Ottoman Empire after the end of the
war.
The Allied expectation that the empire they had dubbed the “sick
man of Europe” would be destroyed with one single military blow proved to be
wishful thinking. The British attempt to force the Ottoman Empire out of the
war called for a massive landing of Allied troops at the foothills of Gallipoli
on the European shores of the Dardanelles. After establishing a beachhead in
April 1915, the troops planned to climb the hills and destroy the Ottoman
forces that defended the heights. To the dismay of the British, the Ottomans,
supported by German officers, fought back heroically, inflicting an impressive
defeat on the enemy, who retreated with heavy casualties in January 1916.
Another advancing British force in southern Iraq also met unexpected resistance
and suffered heavy
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